Albert Fish Essay

Introduction Everyone is aware there are different types of murders out there. All of them take people’s lives but how they do it in each category is different. In the case of serial killers they kill three or more individuals spaced out over a period of time. They tend to go through phases which include the killing phase, capture phase, aura phase, totem phase, and the depression phase. The phases do not happen in a specific order and not all serial killers experience all of them. Each individual is different. However, during the aura phase the killer becomes withdrawn from reality and tends to have heightened senses. During the killing phase is when the killer actually takes the victims life and that normally leads to the totem phase. This is when the killer tends to take a memento of the ‘moment’. For example, Albert Fish would take body parts to cook and eat. Serial killers may experience a phase of depression after the initial effects of the kill wears off, which is norma lly why the totem phase takes place (to prolong the experience). There is also the capture phase, which generally takes place prior to killing the victim. During this phase the killer renders the victim helpless in a way in which they cannot escape their captivity (Kitaeff, 2011, p. 102). It is quite complex and disturbing. Let’s move onto a serial killer case that is disturbing and riveting and claimed potentially hundreds of children’s lives. The Case of Albert Hamilton Fish Albert Hamilton Fish seemed to be a harmless man. He was a great father and husband and no one suspected he could be such a monster. He was about 5 feet 5 inches tall and weighed about 130 pounds, and was quite frail in his elderly years. Looking at him there was no way of knowing he could pose such a danger (Bardsley, n.d.). One of his known victims was Gracie Budd. He found her after responding to an ad that her brother had placed looking for a job as a farm hand. Fish went to their residence and claimed to be  Frank Howard. Mr. â€Å"Howard† stated that he would return the next day to pick up the Budd’s son and his best friend to take him back to his farm to begin work. When he returned he stated he had a birthday part to attend and he would like to take Gracie with him, her mother hesitated, but ended up allowing her to go with him. Gracie and the man known to the Budd’s as â€Å"Mr. Howard† were never to be seen again (Bardsley, n.d.). The morning a fter her disappearance her brother, Edward, went to the police to report that his sister was missing. To the families dismay, the address that â€Å"Mr. Howard† had given them did not exist. There were only a few solid clues that would help police locate the mystery man who had last been seen with Gracie. They found the original note he had sent from the Western Union Office so they now had a hand writing sample to use for comparison. It also showed that Mr. Howard had some form of education based of the proper use of grammar and how well his writing was. They also found a location in common with the addresses that he had given the Budd’s: East Harlem (CrimeLibrary, n.d). She was not his first victim though. Just a year before Gracie became one of â€Å"The Gray Man’s† victims a young boy disappeared from the hall of his apartment building where he was playing with a 3 year old and a 12 year old. The older boy went back into the apartment to check on his sister. When he returned both of the Billy’s were gone. The 3 year old was found on the roof and stated that the boogey man had taken Billy Gaffney. His body was never found (Bardsley, n.d.). Gracie and Billy were not the only victims of Albert Fish. He also abducted and murdered Francisis McDonnel in 1924, among numerous other victims (Jenks & Johnson, n.d.). When an investigator spread rumors that he had new evidence on Gracie Budd’s disappearance the Budd’s received a bone chilling letter detailing what had happened to her. He recounted the memories of him arriving at their address on June 3, 1928. He talked about how he had brought them cheese and that he had invited Gracie to the birthday party he had to attend and that her mother allowed her to leave with him. He also stated in the letter that he had her wait outside of the building while he went inside and stripped down naked. He then waved her to come upstairs and he hid in a closet waiting for her to en ter the room. When she did he attacked her, strangled her, and cut her up to take her to his room so he could eat her. He told the Budd’s that it took him nine days to devour her entire body and that he really enjoyed how she  tasted. He told them how she had fought him and that she died a virgin even though he could have taken advantage of her if he had wished too (Jenks & Johnson, n.d.). Edward rushed the letter to the authorities where they didn’t want to believe the letter but the hand writing matched that of â€Å"Mr. Howard’s† on the Western Union letter. â€Å"The envelope had an important clue: a small hexagonal emblem had the letters N.Y.P.C.B.A. which stood for the New York Private Chauffeur’s Benevolent Association (Bardsley, n.d.).† Because of this clue, the president of the association called an emergency meeting and everyone was questioned and had to give a writing sample. No one matched the writing sample they had for  "The Gray Man.† So, the extended the search, they asked if anyone had taken any of the stationary and one man admitted to taking a few envelopes and pieces of stationary that he had left behind at his old rooming address. When they police gave a description of â€Å"Mr. Howard† she was surprised that the description matched perfectly to an older gentleman who had roomed there for a couple of months and had just checked out a few days prior to police arrival. But, to the land lady, he was known as Albert H. Fish. He had asked her to hold a letter for him because he was expected some money from his son who sent him some often (CrimeLibrary, n.d.). Then on December 13, 1934 the land lady called the detective and stated that Fish was at the house. The detective rushed over and when he entered to room asked if he was, in fact, Albert Fish. He was then arrested (Bardsley, n.d.). During his interrogation, Fish confessed to killing Gracie Budd and Billy Gaffney as well as at least 100 more children. Fish told investigators that he had a â€Å"blood thirst† and that’s why he took Gracie even though is intentions were to take her brother, Edwards and his best friend. He intended on taking t hem into the woods, tying them up, and cutting off their genitalia and leaving them to bleed to death. But, when he met Gracie, she is the one that he just had to have. He gave gruesome details, more than he included in the letter, of what he had done to her. He had placed her head on a paint can and proceeded to decapitate her catching most of her blood in the paint can. He cut her to pieces wrapping what he wanted to keep in paper and throwing the rest of a concrete wall of the abandoned building he had killed her in. He told investigators that he was unsure as to why he wanted to kill her and that he had no thoughts of raping her. When they found Gracie’s body he  stood nearby and showed no emotion even though he had told those in the interview that he would have given anything to bring her back after he had killed her (Bardsley, n.d.). Fish had a record with police. He had been arrested at least 6 times and most of them were right around the time that he had kidnapped and killed Gracie Budd. He also spent time in mental institutions as well. He had 6 children, a wife, who left him when his youngest was 3, and took everything (CrimeLibrary, n.d). When Fish’s picture was seen by a motorman who drove a Brooklyn trolley he was identified as being seen with Billy Gaffney on February 27, 1927; which he also confessed to. He described how he had killed the young boy as well as how he prepared his body for a feast. He said he whipped Billy’s naked body until blood ran down his legs (this was to tenderize the meat), cut off his ears and nose, and split his mouth from ear to ear. Once he was dead he stuck a knife in his belly and drank some of his blood. Fish then cut up the body putting what he wanted to keep in a sack and threw the other parts into the murky water near North Beach (Bardsley, n.d.). During the time of the interview with Dr. Wertham, a Psychologist, he came across as â€Å"meek, gentle, benevolent, and polite (Bardsley, n.d.).† In fact the doctor stated â€Å"If you wanted someone to entrust your children to, he would be the one you should choose (Bardsley, n.d.).† Boy, how his appearances were very misleading. According to Wertham, Fish’s attitude in about the ordeal was complete detachment. Fish even stated that he was indifferent on living or dying because he felt that he was never quite right. And felt that he was not insane but that he was never able to understand himself and who he was. His entire family had a serious history of mental issues, which could be part of the reason Dr. Wertham believed he was beyond insane. Fish confided in Dr. Wertham that he had at least 100 more victims than anyone knew about as well as how he would torture himself. He claimed to have stuck needles in his body between his rectum and scrotum. The doctor  was skeptical until an x-ray confirmed what he had told the doctor; needles he pushed in to far were still there. He also stated that he would soak cotton balls in alcohol and stick them in his rectum and set them on fire, he also did this to some of his victims. He told the doctor â€Å"I always had a desire to inflict pain on others and to have others inflict pain on me. I always seemed to enjoy everything that hurts (Bardsley, n.d.).† At the age of 55, Fish began to experience hallucinations and delusions. He seriously believed that his actions were dictated by God himself. God told him that he was supposed to kidnap, mutilate, and kill young boys. His children had witnessed him standing on a hill with his hands raised stating, â€Å"I am God!† They also testified that they had seen him beat his naked body with a board full of nails until his body was covered in blood. These things lead Wertham to believe that Fish was suffering from a religious psychosis. When Fish recounted how he killed and cooked Billy, Dr. Wertham noticed that he spoke matter of factly and that he seems to get some sort of gratification and thrill from what he had done (Anderson, n.d.). His trial only lasted ten days and it took the jury only an hour to return a verdict of guilty. The guilty by reason of insanity did not work and he was sentenced to the electric chair. While Fish was not happy with the verdict (he said God still had more work for him to do), he was intrigued by the fact that he was going to die by an electric chair. He even thanked the judge for granting him this punishment (Anderson, n.d). Psychological Theories According to Dr. Wertham, who testified at the trial, he believed that Fish was legally insane. With his history of mental issues, his hallucinations and delusions, Wertham found Fish to be â€Å"an introverted (concerned with his self and actions rather than others) and extremely infantilistic personality (mentally under developed) (Bardsley, n.d.). Dr. Wertham labeled Fish as having a paranoid psychosis due to his abnormal makeup and because he suffered from delusions and hallucinations that God was giving him commands to conduct the horrendous acts. It was believed that Fish had â€Å"a perverted, a distorted — if you want, an insane — knowledge of right and wrong. His  test was that if it had been wrong he would have been stopped, as Abraham was stopped, by an angel (Bardsley, n.d.).† Psychological Causes of his Crimes Albert Fish was a gruesome serial killer, one that no one will ever be able to understand fully. A serial killer is defined as an individual who commits at least three murders over a spanned period of time. It is believed that having a history of abandonment, abuse, neglect, and domestic violence may play a role in individuals becoming serious killers (Kitaeff, 2011, p. 101). And, contrary to what some believe, serial killers can and normally do lead what we see as normal lives. They have families, are active in the community, and do not keep to themselves. However, they do feel the need to be in complete control and if they do not feel they are they feel helpless and powerless. Fish’s father died when he was young, his mother sent him to an orphanage where he was repeatedly beaten and sexually abused, all of which could have contributed to what he became (Kitaeff, 2011, p. 102). Fish seems to fall into the typologies of visionary and hedonistic. The visionary typology states that offenders are normally psychotic and they tend to see and hear things that tell them to commit their crimes. Hedonistic is when a murder kills for their pleasure and tend to exhibit â€Å"bizarre aspects which defy any degree of rational behavior (Kitaeff, 2011, p. 103). They also tend to be sadistic and brutal, and in Albert’s Fish’s case, he was all of the above. He brutally tortured many of his victims and then he would savor the kill by cooking up body parts to eat them (Bardsley, n.d.). Conclusion It is safe to say that Albert Fish was not all there. However, can it really be proven that he did not know right from wrong? After all, he did begin to kidnap, torture, and kill before he began to have hallucinations. Even after he seemed to have an understanding that what he was doing was night and he was disconnected and didn’t really care if he lived or died. He believed he was doings God’s work but stated that he was unsure as to why he really did the things he did. Maybe his rough past had something to do  with turning him into the monster he become. But, can we ever really know? It truly is a scary thought because many believed he was just an amazing, caring father who was very kind and polite; not the monster he really was. It just goes to show that appearances can be dangerously deceiving. Sources Anderson, S. E. (n.d.). The Crime and Trial of Albert H. Fish: Divine Hunger. Retrieved September 29, 2012 from The African American Experience Web site: http://testaae.greenwood.com/doc_print.aspx?fileID=C8336&chapterID=C8336-618&path=books/greenwood Bardsley, M. (n.d.). Albert Fish. Retrieved September 29, 2012 from TruTV.com Web site: http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/serial_killers/notorious/fish/index.html CrimeLibrary.com (n.d.). Albert Hamilton Fish. Retrieved September 29, 2012 from Murderpedia Web site: http://www.murderpedia.org/male.F/f/fish-albert.htm Jenks, A., & Johnson, G. (n.d.). Albert Hamilton Fish. Retrieved September 28, 2012 from Radford University, Psychology Web site: http://maamodt.asp.radford.edu/Psyc%20405/serial%20killers/Fish,%20Albert%20_2008,%20spring_.pdf Kitaeff, J. (2011). Forensic Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NY: Prentice Hall.

What is hysteria? Discuss how hysteria was important in the origins of psychoanalysis.

Introduction Throughout the history of psychology, the term Hysteria was used to describe symptoms of illness that were atypical to already established diseases (Feinstein, 2011). Neuropsychiatrists of the 1800-1900s described Hysteria as an illness where dissociation occurs for reasons that are not obvious. The symptoms shown in a hysterical patient are those such as anaesthesia, amnesia, abulia, motor control disorders and changes in personality (Haule, 1986). These symptoms are known today as a type of psychoneurosis which causes emotional excitability, provoking emotions such as fear or panic. Disturbance of the sensory, motor and cognitive functions of humans are also a result of this particular neurosis (Patel, 2012). It has been argued by critics of the DSM that the condition, Hysteria, lacks validity and that the only reason why it lasted as a category of disease throughout history is due to tradition (Feinstein, 2011). Thus, in 1994, the DSM-IV removed ‘hysteria’ as an estab lished disease and divided the symptoms of the disease into two sections now known as Somatoform Disorder and Dissociative Disorder. The issues under these two umbrella terms covered the symptoms that were accepted by the original term ‘hysteria’ (Feinstein, 2011). The DSM-IV stated that the diagnoses for the conditions which lie under the umbrella terms Somatoform Disorder and Dissociative Disorder are particularly relevant to the formerly known diagnostic categories of hysteria. These conditions are Somatisation Disorder, Conversion Disorder and Dissociative Amnesia (Feinstein, 2011). Conversion Disorder was the most closely associated to the disorders that were treated by Charcot and Freud in the 1900s, and refers to symptoms that mimic neurological disorders such as motor and sensory deficits, pseudo seizures and mixed presentations. These symptoms should not relate to any organic source of illness, nor be associated with substance use/abuse or the patients particip ation in culturally endorsed behaviours such as trances during religious ceremonies in order for them to be and have been diagnosed as hysteria (Feinstein, 2011). The aim of the present essay is to outline what hysteria was, and how it related to psychoanalysis. So, although the symptoms of hysteria are now represented through separate categories of mental disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual in the present day, for the purpose of this essay, the term hysteria will be used to encapsulate all of the symptoms, and in order to embody the historical and contextual term whilst discussing the relevance of the condition to the origins of psychoanalysis. The literature suggests that the causes of hysteria are linked to past traumas, conflict, undue stress such as bereavement and a history of abuse (Patel, 2012). It has also been theorised that repression of sexual or aggressive behaviours could trigger hysteria. This concept was best conveyed through Freud’s work on pat ient Anna O, where psychoanalysis had begun to take form. Freud had treated Anna O for symptoms of Hysteria by joining Breuer’s talk therapy and Charcot’s view of hysteria (Webster, 2004). Anna O’s symptoms represented the typical manifestation of hysteria. Physical symptoms consisted of a cough, paralysis on the right side of the body, contractures, and disturbances in vision, hearing and language. Psychological symptoms consisted of lapses in consciousness and frequent hallucinations. These symptoms are similar to the modern day indicators of Conversion Disorder. Doctors found no organic cause for Anna O’s symptoms, so as a result of this, she was diagnosed with hysteria. Through the work on Anna O, an outline for psychoanalysis had begun to emerge (Webster, 2004). Freud continued to use the same therapeutic techniques on other patients who displayed the symptoms of hysteria, consequently bringing psychoanalysis into full bloom (Webster, 2004). The proc ess of exploring concepts such as the unconscious, repression and intrapsychic conflict in hysterical patients aided the development of psychoanalysis. Hypnosis, directive and abreactive techniques, and an early form of free association were used with these patients. Through these experiments Freud was able to strengthen the foundation of his psychoanalytical theory by adding these techniques to his practice of psychoanalysis (Krohn, 1978). Freudian psychoanalytic theory, and its associated practice, psychoanalysis, placed emphasis on the theory of the unconscious mind. Freud had proposed that the mind was composed of three components: the id, ego and superego. These components were suggested to play a significant role in the development of hysteria and are best explained through their association to the psychosexual stages of development (Yarom, 2005). The psychosexual stages of development encompass the Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital phases. The theory holds the standpoin t that the ego develops during the Oral phase, and the superego develops during the Phallic phase. The subject of hysteria has widely been studied in ego psychology and its understanding was enhanced in the more recent studies throughout the literature, as a personality disorder related to conflicts within the ego (Yarom, 2005). Psychoanalytic theory had proposed that the ego and the superego were developed by the psyche in order to put into effect some control over the libido during psychosexual development and throughout adult life, so that need for gratification is directed into socially acceptable ways. Freud had stated that need for gratification is associated with the different parts of the body during each stage of psychosexual development, thus the conflict between the id, ego and the superego is associated with whichever psychosexual stage the individual is at (McLeod, 2008). The conflict within the psyche at the Phallic stage is what has been theorised to bring about the O edipus and Electra Complexes in individuals (McLeod, 2008). The suggestion made by Freud was that hysteria was associated with rejected sexuality. Freud put forward strong references to the female sexuality. This connection was made through the theory of the Electra complex in which females are said to have unconscious incestuous wishes and envy the penis of their male caregivers. For this reason, hysteria was a disease strongly related to women (Yarom, 2005) On the other hand, neo-Freudian approaches, such as that of Horney’s (1967) suggested that penis envy should be considered as a secondary as opposed to primary phenomenon, in the sense that women’s sexual identities are more focused on aspirations to bear children rather than achieve orgasm. However, it may be suggested that this still provides a sexist standpoint against women as it portrays women as only being interested in bearing children. Nonetheless, sexism was slowly overcome as history progressed and this was evident through the fact that hysteria gradually became a disorder that was associated with males as well as females (Yarom, 2005). Yet contradictory literature shows studies during the 1970s which still insisted that hysteria was more prevalent among women than men, with a high comorbidity evident between sociopathy and hysteria, especially in women (Cloninger & Guze, 1971). These findings are supported by Lerner (1974) who stated that hysteria is a disease frequently applied to women and less frequently, if never, to men. However, despite these studies showing evidence in the literature that hysteria is a female only disease, it may be suggested that the chauvinistic and patriarchal nature of society throughout history may have influenced the findings that although males may exhibit hysterical behaviours, it does not necessarily mean that they have the condition hysteria. It may be the case that male researchers did not want to associate this ‘weakness in characterâ€⠄¢ to the male population, therefore put it forth as a female only illness, maintaining the ‘strong’ image of men. Secondly, since the majority of the researchers in this area of interest were males, it may also be suggested that they lacked empathy and understanding of the emotions and behaviours that females were exhibiting, thus interpreted these as more hysterical than those which the males were exhibiting. Conversely, the paper by Lerner (1974) does indicate that hysterical symptoms such as conversion reactions and dissociative phenomena were been observed in men, but that these patients did not display the cognitive and personality characteristics of the hysterical individual, therefore they did not have hysteria. Yet, in any case, when social and contextual factors are taken into consideration, it brings one’s attention to the fact that the doctors and researchers involved in studies of Hysteria were mainly male, reinforcing the notion that the literature was also dominated by observations influenced by patriarchal males. To lend additional support to this view, it was advocated that the explanation of the prevalence of Hysteria among women on the part of psychoanalysts was focused on preoedipal and oedipal developmental tasks that must be mastered by males and females, yet the libidinal development of the two sexes only offers a partial explanation of the alleged sex differences in Hysteria, therefore it is more rational to hold the belief that social and cultural factors play a major role in the issue (Lerner, 1974). With reference to conflict within the psyche during each psychosexual stage, the purpose of psychoanalysis was to aid the patient in bringing forward to consciousness the repressed thoughts and emotions that were associated with these phases. Resolving these conflicts would strengthen the ego (Zimberoff & Hartman, 2000).. In accord, the likelihood of developing hysteria would lessen. This is supported by the notion tha t tension during each phase relies on the way in which the ego deals with anxiety, and that hysteria is a result of manifested repression of an incompatible idea on the ego’s part (Vaillant, 1992). Therefore, the evidence based on the relationship between the id, ego and superego in psychosexual stages and the development of hysteria, played a cruicial role as a catalyst in bringing the theory of psychoanalysis into practice. This is evident through the demonstration of how resolving psychosexual conflicts strengthens the ego, therefore avoiding the development of hysteria. Although the role of Hysteria in the development of psychoanalysis is clear, it must be noted that the patriarchal approach taken by Freud and other researchers during the studies of Hysteria had also reflected on the theory and practice of psychoanalysis (Bernheimer & Kahane, 1985). Freud’s writings were based mainly on male development (McLeod, 2008). This could imply one of two things: Either tha t he held the belief that female development mirrored male development, or that it was inferior to male development. Hence, it is appropriate for one to question the theory that if hysteria was a female only disease, was it a mirror of male hysteriaThis could in turn imply that males were also prone to developing hysteria, therefore weakening the literature throughout history that hysteria was limited to females. On the other hand, it may also be suggested that if only the ‘hysterical symptoms’ that were limited to men, were mirrored by women and were manifested in women as full blown hysteria, that hysteria was in fact a disease in full bloom in males as well as females. If women mirroring the behaviour of men was the case, this would suggest and further reinforce the idea that psychoanalysis the product of a patriarchal foundation, as hysteria was the catalyst which had patriarchal influences attached to it. As a consequence, one is left in a position to question whet her studies on hysteria had influenced psychoanalysis, or whether psychoanalysis had influenced the findings and history of hysteria, as they both appear to be partners in crime when the issue of sexism has been mentioned throughout the literature. In summary, hysteria is a set of symptoms known in the modern day as three different categories of mental disorder, classified by the DSM-IV as: Somatisation Disorder, Conversion Disorder and Dissociative Amnesia. These three categories include the indicators of hysteria such as anaesthesia, amnesia, abulia, motor control disorders and changes in personality. Modern psychology suggests that hysteria is brought on through past traumas, conflict, undue stress such as bereavement and a history of abuse. However, throughout the history of psychology, it was believed that hysteria was the ego’s reaction to suppressed sexual or aggressive behaviours. Freud, Charcot and Breuer played significant roles in the establishment of the term hyst eria, and Anna O had been the first patient to be treated for the symptoms of hysteria. Through the practice of talking therapy and free association, Freud began to establish the theory of psychoanalysis as he worked with Anna O. Theories of the unconscious mind and its components, the id, ego and superego began to emerge as Freud established their roles in the development of the human psyche. Later, hypnosis, directive and abreactive techniques, were used with Freud’s patients. It was through the founding of the psychosexual stages of development that psychoanalysis began to blossom in full bloom. Many doctors in the 1800-1900s had associated hysteria with females, considering it to be a women’s only disease and suggesting that men merely showed symptoms of the disease – not a complete case (Lerner, 1974). For this reason, Freud had suggested that the conflict of the psyche during the Phallic stage, especially for females, whom struggled with penis envy, was wh at manifested as Hysteria at a later stage in life (Yarom, 2005). However, subsequent and more recent speculation highlighted the fact that these findings were discovered during a highly patriarchal time in history, where the medical field was widely dominated by men. Thus, it became evident that hysteria was, and still is a mental disorder found to be equally as prevalent in both men and women (Tucker, 2009). In conclusion, with respect to the essay question at hand, it was considered that hysteria was a significant foundation and catalyst for the development of psychoanalysis. However, due to the fact that hysteria itself was a flawed phenomenon in the way it was reflected throughout the literature at the time, psychoanalysis also became a skewed theory, based on patriarchal and chauvinistic theories. Nonetheless, this does not change the fact that Hysteria, and Anna O played a major role in the founding of psychoanalysis. Moreover, it should be considered that Hysteria is now an outdated term. The symptoms have been revised and the categories for the symptoms have been divided by the DSM, reflecting the progression that psychological literature has made since the time of Freud and psychoanalysis. References Bernheimer, C. and Kahane, C. (1985). In Dora’s case. 1st ed. New York: Columbia University Press. Clonninger, C. and Guze, S. (1970). Psychiatric Illness and Female Criminality: The Role of Sociopathy and Hysteria in the Antisocial Woman. American Journal of Psychiatry. 127(3), pp.303-311. Feinstein, A. (2011). Conversion disorder: advances in our understanding. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 183(8). 915-920. Haule J.R. (1986). Pierre Janet and dissociation: the first transference theory and its origins in Hypnosis. Am J Clin Hypnosis. 29: 86-94 Horney, K. (1967). Feminine psychology. 1st ed. New York: W.W. Norton. Krohn, A. (1978). Hysteria, the elusive neurosis. 1st ed. New York: International Universities Press. McLeod, S. (2014). Psychosexual Stages | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Patel, M. and Patel, M. (2012). An Introduction to Hysteria: Causes Symptoms and Treatment. [online] mDhil. Available at: http://www.mdhil.com/an-introduction-to-hysteria/ [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Psychologistworld.com, (2014). Sigmund Freud – Psychology Issues – Psychologist World. [online] Available at: http://www.psychologistworld.com/psychologists/freud_1.php [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Webster, R. (2014). Anna O and Hysteria: Charcot and the origins of psychoanalysis. [online] Available at: http://www.richardwebster.net/print/xfreudandcharcot.htm [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Vaillant, G.E. (1992). Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. Yarom, N. (2005). Matrix of hysteria. 1st ed. London: Routledge. Zimberoff, D. and Hartman, D. (2000). Ego Strengthening and Ego Surrender. Journal of Heart-Centered Therapies, 3(2), pp.3-66.

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English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 34

English - Essay Example Many people have had their faith in the American dream shattered by the crisis and the loss of their home. Many have said that the whole financial system will collapse due to the huge problems revealed by the credit crunch and the failure of banks around the world. In the face of these problems each country has had to find economic policies to try to stave off a serious depression. Many economists believe the crisis began because of a big asset boom in the United States. Banks and other lenders gave away many loans at very low interest rates to people who simply who could not afford to pay back the money. In the beginning this led to a huge boom in housing prices because there were so many buyers in the housing market and there was a high demand and a somewhat low supply. However, eventually what happened was that people began to default on their mortgage payments. During the boom years many complicated financial products involving mortgages were bought and sold by banks and it was d ifficult to know how many of these "toxic mortgages" were actually on a banks balance sheet. As the number of defaults and foreclosures increased people began to become very nervous as they had trouble determining the value of banks stocks and how many bad mortgages they held. These are serious problems the government needs to fix. We need to have a new era of hope and faith in order for people to begin to believe in the American dream

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Desert Flower by Cathleen Miller and Waris Dirie

Desert Flower by Cathleen Miller and Waris Dirie Last year, I watched the adapted movie of the book, Desert Flower in the cinema. That movie has fascinated, motivated and likewise evoke interest in me. In my opinion it is incredible how people can live under those bad conditions in Africa. For that reason, I wanted to read the book. In the following essay I will focus on the ancient customs and the culture of the nomads. There are several questions to think about when discussing about the role of women in Somalia. In particular, I will find out about the importance, meaning and purpose of the female genital mutilation. After writing my thesis I would like to research in what way the women in Somalia are treated and if they are put under pressure by their men and whether there is egalitarianism in their society. In addition, during those researches, I want to develop my own point of view. Introduction Desert Flower is the true Story based on the life of Waris Dirie. All actions, mentioned in the text are factual. The author of the book, Desert Flower, Waris Dirie, is a very hardworking girl. She is one of the children born into a traditional family of tribal desert nomads of Somalia in East Africa. With her family, she has experienced a very closed and formative culture, whose habits and rituals, in the truest sense of the word, left scars behind. She has a very good relationship with her family. However, Waris Dirie is adversely affected by the practice of the painful female circumcision. Later, she is going to report about the genital mutilation due to her family tradition and to draw attention to what happens with the girls in her home land. Efficient Examination with my topic 1. Characteristic Lives of Nomads in Somalia To begin with, in the extraordinary journey of a desert nomad Dirie speaks from her own daily experiences in a traditional living nomad family during her epitaxial growth. Therefore, the reader gets to know about the parents, teaching their children all the skills they need to survive. They neither learn how to read nor to write because the family cannot afford to pay for their children education. Her mother teaches Dirie to care about her younger siblings and how to provide her family with enough food, whereas her father teaches her how to take care of their animals. Usually nomads are uneducated. They just live very simple and know about things that have been passed on throughout generations. At times, there is not enough food for the whole family. The priority is to feed the smallest children, then the older ones. Waris Dirie cannot remember ever seeing her mother eat. Her mother always has waived her rights. Somalia remains a very deeply troubled country because everyone lives th e way their ancestors had for thousands of years. Like most of Somalis, Diries family lives the lifestyle of herdsman. That means Somali nomads never stay at a place longer than four weeks. They always look for another place where new water resources are available and move there. That is why they do not have a certain habitation. (p. 40- 41) The father of every family is the head and protector. He makes all the decisions which concern the whole family. At many times, Waris Dirie has to feel the brutal beat of her father because he wants to remind her of taking her work seriously. Being nomads, the family of Dirie does not have any material prosperity like automobiles, electricity or telephones. They do not have any artificial time constructions like clocks and calendars. That is why Dirie do not really know how old she is, she can only guess. Dirie (1998) argues that In Africa there was no hurry, no stress. African time is very, very slow, very calm. (p. 42) I believe that nomads have a much different perspective of life. Generally speaking, their routine of the day is incomparable. They decide every morning anew what they have to do and therefore they are living by the seasons and the sun. In particular, Waris talks about children in Somalia who are not allowed to attend to her parents affairs. She just has to obey all the time, regarding her parents with great respect, following their wishes. In addition, it is usual for the man having multiple wives. The man wants to have a lot of children but after a while, the women are either physically not able to carry out children anymore or are mentally against another birth due to pain during pregnancies or for other emotional reasons. As a result, the man leaves and looks for another wife that is willing to carry out children. (p. 41- 43) According to Dirie (1998), The nomads life is a harsh one, but it is also full of beauty- a life so connected to nature that the two are inseparable (page 58). A better way for nomads to put this is that water is a very important but an infrequently and scarce resource in life because they do not have any water- taps. They have a deep respect for water and they love it. Dirie (1998) describes the source of water as such an uninhibited feeling of freedom and joy. (p.322) People have to pray for rain and if there are not any raindrops, they have to go on a long search for it. Simply looking at it gives me great joy. (Dirie, 1998, p. 60) This quotation shows that people in Somalia appreciate the simple things they have in their lives. Furthermore Dirie tells about their celebrations where they thank God for having such a precious and beautiful life where all are praying, singing, dancing and eating together. (p. 43, 47- 61) The infancy of Waris Dirie: Growing up with animals For Waris Dirie, her family, nature and the animals (compare App. p. 12, figure 2) are the main elements of life. We grew up with animals, prospered when they prospered, suffered when they suffered, died when they died (Dirie, 1998, p. 17). Animals are very vital and helpful for nomads and they probably have the first priority, because they keep the tribes alive. (p. 16- 17) People in Somalia have large herds of cattle, sheep, goats and camels. When Dirie was a young girl, she had been responsible for these herds of her family. Every morning she had to get up very early to move the herds to a fresh area. While the animals were grazing, she had to watch for other predators, like hyenas. A loss of the herd meant for Somali nomads the worse. A very important animal for the Somali nomads is the camel. No animal is such as suitable und valuable for living in the wilderness like camels. In addition, the camels have a special significance for the culture of the Somalia-nomads who always write poems and songs about their camels. Even the children know about the value of the protection of the camels. From the time I was a baby, I knew of the great importance of these animals, because theyre absolutely gold in our society. (Dirie, 1998, p. 18) A camel is never killed to be eaten. The qualities of a camel are too valuable, so that the death of these animals would s how only one big loss. The camels are inalienable components and indispensable for the life of the Somali nomads in the desert. They make their lives considerably easier and have a cultural meaning for them. (p. 18- 25) Anyhow, she has not experienced a typical childhood. At the age of four, she is raped by a friend of her father. She just feels something hard pressing into her vagina and she even does not understand what has happened to her in that moment. Later, when she runs away from home she is nearly raped a second time. She asks a trucker if he is able to pick her up. But then, he takes his pants down and Dirie (1998) states that His erect penis bobbed at me as he grabbed my legs and tried to force them apart, (p. 13). Unlike me, he was experienced, no doubt raping many women; I was simply about to become the next one. (Dirie, 1998, p. 13) With all her strength, she jumps off the truck and then, runs away. (p. 11- 14) 2. Nomads rituals: female circumcision in Somalia It belongs to the culture of Somalis that every girl must experience the female genital mutilation (FGM) at the pubescent age which achieve the status of a Somali woman and therefore being able to marry. The curtailment of her sisters and later also her own, were carried out by a gypsy. In the society of the Somali nomads, she takes a high value and a high position, because she belongs to one of the least ones which know how to do the practice. Moreover, she gets a huge pay of the family because of the curtailment. (p. 64- 65) When Waris goes through this practice at the age of five, it has changed her life because she trespasses the boarder of her childhood into her womanhood. Her younger sister and two cousins died fom this procedure. She describes this ancient ritual as very painful, but she is very jealous of her oldest sister because after the circumcision she becomes a women. When I hears the old gypsy was coming to circumcise Aman, I wanted to be circumcised, too. (Dirie, 1998, p. 64) Because of this big desire for the circumcision, she screames: Mama, do both of us at the same time. Come on, Mama, do both of us tomorrow!. (Dirie, 1998, p. 64) Besides, it concerns removing the female genitals. The next thing I felt was my flesh, my genitals, being cut away. (Dirie, 1998, p. 70). During the execution, Waris losts also her consciousness. After removing the female genitals the girls have just one small opening left, in the size of a match head, for urinating and the monthly period. Waris suffered durin g her period always from strong pains, because the blood cannot flow naturally through the tiny hole. The prevailing wisdom in Somalia is that there are bad things between a girls legs, parts of our bodies that were born with, yet are unclean. (Dirie, 1998, p. 63). Also she had problems while urinating what mostly lasted several minutes. Moreover, this is a sign for the future man that she is still purely, so a virgin. (p. 62- 72) After the execution of the genital mutilation, it is the traditional custom of the Somalis to built a hut for the girls until her physical scars left accured. This hut which is built out of staves and branches is placed far away from the trunk. Because of this expended distance the tribes could not hear the yelling of the pain. For the same reason, the curtailment is curried out in the early morning if still the other members of the family sleep. Because of the painful procedure, girls are lying helpless and unable to run. After the curtailment, merely food is brought to her in the lodging. Furthermore there is always danger of dying after the practice due to infections. If the woman has entered then into marriage, her husband either has the possibility to use a sharp object or just press his genitals into the women until it bursts again. As tools for the operation of this genital mutilation mostly arbitrary, filthy- sharp objects are used because the possibilities of suitable equipm ent are impossible in such regions and also no medical institutions exist. The disastrous results with themselves which end in many cases with the death bring the use such of immoderate utensils. The Somalis look at this tradition as an inalienable one, because girls with unscathed genitals are considered as inexpedient about the marriage, dirtily, repellent and slovenly. (p. 73- 78) There are also a lot of unforgettable consequences which are closely connected with acute pain. In the conditions under which female circumcision is generally performed in Africa, even the less extensive types of genital cutting can lead to potentially fatal complications, such as hemorrhage, infection and shock à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.(compare App. p. 11, figure 1)(Althaus, 1997) Becoming a women-the Marriage contract If a girl is cut, she is ready to be married. She must remain a virgin up to her wedding which her father always predicts her: Youre supposed to be a virgin when you marry. Girls know they will marry as a virgin, and will marry only one man, and thats it. Thats your life. (Dirie, 1998, p. 81) She would marry even once in her life and spend her whole life with her husband. However, men have the right to have several women at the same time. The choice of the future husband is always made by the father and often against the will of the daughter. Besides, the choice mostly falls on that man which offers most camels. However, the wedding is one of the least and most important holidays in the life of the Somali nomads which is celebrated also accordingly traditional like Dirie (1998) reports in her journey that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾When a girl marries, the women from her tribe go out into the desert and collect these flowers. They dry them, then add water to them and make a paste to spread on th e brides face that gives her a golden glow. (p. 58) Dirie (1998) also reports that In my culture, a woman earns a badge of respect when she becomes a mother. (p. 347) For a girl or a woman the wedding means the beginning of a new life, regardless and independent of her family and the foundation of an own family. (p. 81- 89) A few years after her curtailment, at the age of about twelve years, Waris should be also married. It is hard for her father to found a man who advertises around them or offers an adequate price of the hand of his daughter. He is sixty years old but her father arranges his daughter a marriage. He offers five camels for Dirie. This is a high price for the marriage with this little girl. She denies and do not want to marry him. Dirie (1998) defends the argument that As a girl in Somalia, I never thought about marriage or sex. In my family- in our culture- nobody ever talked about any of that. It never, ever, came to mind. (p. 80) However, she defends herself not to marry this old man and to spend the rest of her life with this man. Dirie has always her own will and objections. This behavior pattern is not typically for a properly traditional educated Somali nomad. Somali men estimate women who obey and do not contradict. She has only two possibilities, either she would obey and marry t he old man or to run away. She decides to leave her family, like her sister Aman did before and so she flees in the capital of Somalia, Mogadishu. (p. 90- 95) 3. Flashback to her childhood and aims for the future In spite of criticising the practice of the female genital mutilation, Waris Dirie reports very positvie about her culture and she is still completely proud to be a nomad, born in Africa. From Diries point of view, her mothercountry probably is not comparable to other countries because the families have a strong solidarity like nowhere else. From the beginning, I had the instinct for survival; I learned joy and pain at the same time. I learned that happiness is not what you have, because I never had anything, and I was so happy. (Dirie, W. 1998, p.363) The growing up has changed the personality of Dirie (1998), because she reports that Today, I cherish the value of the simple things. (p. 364) On account of the horrible circumcision, Dirie is very angry, feels sad and often much pain. She cannot imagine that anybody would accept the practice and just because at the thought of the mutilation to other girls who all have to accept their fates. (p. 239- 242) As Dirie (1998) has grown older, she realizes that Well, these are my legs, and theyre a result of who I am and where Im from (p. 286). That means she is very proud of her legs and her traditional past because they are the symbol for her origin and her family background. And everywhere she goes in the world, Dirie can remember the days with her family and her culture. At the end of the journey, Waris Dirie (1998) comes to the conclusion that the most important priorities in the world are nature, personal goodness, family, and friendship. (p.294) Dirie wants to do something for all the women, which have to be circumcised. Apparently, there are millions of girls who also plague health problem because of the violent practice. Dirie (1998) is of the opinion that Because of a ritual ignorance, most of the women on the continent of Africa live their lives in pain. (p.349) On account of have been born female, Dirie is very worried and saw herself responsible to speak up about the female circumcision and to help the women in Africa. For all the women in her country who are silence, Dirie arranges the Waris Dirie Foundation which organizes a lot of worldwide projects and they are about to fight against the FGM. (Dirie, W. 2001) I have started the Desert Dawn Foundation to raise money for schools and clinics in Somali. They want to protect the women in Somalia and to stop the ignorant selfish men who demand their wives be circumcised. And the legacy of pain, suffering, and death that results from it is more than enough reason for it to stop. (Dirie, W. 1998, p. 360) That is the reason why Waris Dirie fights for the restraining order of the female genital mutilation. (p. 362- 369) 4. Conclusion Waris Dirie who shows an amazing strength, experienced an inconceivably heavy life with difficult circumstances, customs, traditions and cultures depending on animals, the nature and the vegetation in the desert of Somalia. She suffered from dry weathers, famines, illnesses and at the age of about five years the curtailment. These are all situations which are foreign for the most of our society. Only because of her traditional culture she got a very strong and self- confident ability. That is why she got her life under control. Dirie persuades me with showing her lifelong strong will power. The development and the discussion with the life of the nomads in the desert of Somalia, has shown me other sides of life by illustrating to me another culture. During further researches, I found out that even after the time of the clarification, there are tribes that still practice this FGM. I recommend her untiring fight against the genital curtailment (compare App. p. 13, figure 4). In my opinion, Waris Dirie has succeeded delivering her message with help of the book à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Desert of Flower. She had drawn the attention and the interest of many people towards her homeland, their cultures, traditions and especially on the female genital mutilation or the compulsive marriage. She has also visualized under which circumstances the Somali nomads must live and how they master this life in a very unique way. I can definitely agree with Mire (2002) that Women in Somalia are hard workers, and keep themselves engaged in a variety of roles from morning to night. The womans role is very important and when not fulfilled, the whole family suffers. While writing my essay, I realized that women in Somalia are very much oppressed by their men in the everyday life. I am convinced that women in Somalia have no rights and they are not allowed in any decision making. They have to do everything their man tells them. I want to emphasize that they have neither influence on their agonizing circumcision nor on their marriage. Let me end by saying that the role of women in Somalia is not comparable with the relation between women and men in our society. References Books Dirie,W. (1998). Desert Flower, New York, NY Web- sources Althaus, F. (1997) Female Circumcision: Rite of Passage or Violation of Rights. Guttmacher Institute. Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2313097.html (21/02/2010) Dirie, W. (2001) What is the Waris Dirie Foundation? Waris Dirie Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.waris-dirie-foundation.com/en/network/wp-content/myphotos/wuestenblume-szenenbilder-ii/Szenenbild_02jpeg_1400x937.jpg (02/03/2010) Gibson, H. (2002) Somalias Desert Flower. Time in partnership with CNN. Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901020715-300618,00.html (03/03/2010) Mire, A. (2002) A Look at Women in Somalia. Taking it global. Retrieved from http://www.tigweb.org/express/panorama/article.html?ContentID=865 (03/03/2010)

Interruption Interception Modification And Fabrication Attacks Computer Science Essay

Interruption Interception Modification And Fabrication Attacks Computer Science Essay The communication has been playing an important role since the dawn of civilization. It has become an integral part of existence in the societies which are highly networked where we live in. A few types of communication types have been developed during the earlier stage of civilization which resulted in evolving many types of communications till today. The communication through the internet is the best examples of the latest communication types.There are different types of communications prevailing in our day to day life such as Radio communication, Mobile communication, Telephonic communication and Network communication. Each communication type has its own importance but the communication over a network has been mostly implemented in our life and has been evolved as the most powerful and highly developed communication methods. The network communication method has created a great impact on lives of humans. So as this method is gradually developing and being used by many individuals a nd organizations, such advance in the technology has resulted in the security issues such as threats or malicious attacks to the individuals and organizations. So there is a need to encounter these threats and attacks which resulted in the introduction and development of different mechanisms for providing different services and CRYPTOGRAPHY is one of the mechanisms which is mostly used in the network communication. TYPES OF SECURITY ATTACKS: There are different types of security attacks which affect the communication process in the network and they are as follows Interruption: This type of attack is due to the obstruction of any kind during the communication process between one or more systems. So the systems which are used become unusable after this attack by the unauthorized users which results in the wastage of systems. Interception: The phenomenon of confidentiality plays an important role in this type of attack. The data or message which is sent by the sender is intercepted by an unauthorized individual where the message will be changed to the different form or it will be used by the individual for his malicious process. So the confidentiality of the message is lost in this type of attack. Modification: As the name indicates the message which is sent by the sender is modified and sent to the destination by an unauthorized user. The integrity of the message is lost by this type of attack. The receiver cannot receive the exact message which is sent by the source which results in the poor performance of the network. Fabrication: In this type of attack a fake message is inserted into the network by an unauthorized user as if it is a valid user. This results in the loss of confidentiality, authenticity and integrity of the message. CRYPTOGRAPHY: DEFINITION: The word cryptography is the science of securing information by different techniques such as encryption and decryption. The word cryptography is derived from the Greek word Kryptos which means hidden and graphia means writing, so totally it means hidden writing. Cryptology and Cryptanalysis are closely related to Cryptography. Cryptanalysis is the process of breaking the ciphers and coded without using a key and whereas the cryptology is the combination of both cryptanalysis and cryptography. In the process of cryptography the data which is to be transmitted and received is enciphered by different keys so that it cannot be understand by the unauthorized users. But only the sender and receiver can be able to understand this data. HISTORY: The concept of cryptography was originated in 2000 B.C. in Egypt where the Egyptians practiced hieroglyphics where it is used to reveal the story of the dead people by decorating their tombs and this process was practiced in order to make them to see more ceremonial, majestic and noble but not to hide the message themselves. But later many encryption techniques have evolved for show into practical applications in order to hide the information from others. The history of cryptography was very interesting and many changes have been undergone through many centuries. During the ages of civilization the important issue was the maintenance of secrecy due to the different reasons by individuals or groups and this secrecy maintenance helps the individuals or groups to gain a competitive edge, the true intentions of each individual can be hidden and also the weakness can be reduced. The innovations or advance in the technology has resulted in the changes in cryptographic history. The process of cryptography has begun by sculpturing the message on wood or stone and then it is sent to the person who has to be received and it is deciphered to the original text by different process. But the development of cryptography has undergone many changes from carving the message on wood to the stream of binary codes. These streams of binary codes are transmitted over network wires, airwaves etc in the past but now these binary codes are sent in the form of 0s and 1s through internet cables or open airwaves. These packets are encrypted so that they are not disturbed by the unauthorized users. The Egyptians have started the process of cryptography by replacing the original message with the different message with the help of cipher and this process is known as substitution cipher where each letter in the message to be sent is replaces with the different letter so that unauthorized cannot understand. This message is again retransformed to the original form by the receiver. For e xample the sentence or message STAFFORDSHIRE UNIVERSITY (Plain text) is changed to TUBGGPSETIKSF VOJWFSTJUZ (Encrypted text or cipher text) where each letter is replaces with the preceding letter so that no one can understand. ANCIENT METHODS OF CRYPTOGRAPHY: During the ancient times there were different cryptographic methods which have been implemented for securing the data safely so that it cannot be accessed by an unauthorized user. So the different methods are as follows Hebrew cryptographic method: This is one of the ancient methods of cryptography where flipping of the alphabets takes place in such a way that the mapping of the each letter in the original alphabet and the flipped alphabet should not match each other that means the corresponding letter in the original alphabet should be different in the flipped alphabet and this method of encryption is known as atbash. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA For example the encrypted form of the word Staffordshire University is hgzuuliwhsriv fmrevihrgb. Spartans method: This method of cryptography was implemented around 400 B.C. by the Spartans where they used to encrypt the message or information by using a sheet of papyrus and a wooden stick or rod. The message which is to be sent is written on the papyrus and it is wounded around the stick or rod and this information can be known by the receiver only when the message was wounded around the correct staff so that the letters would properly match. This process is known as scytale cipher and when the paper is removed from the stick or rod the message which was written on the paper was just found as the group of the random characters and this different pieces papyrus are sent to group of soldiers by Greek government with the help of carriers. After receiving the papyrus the soldiers then wound this papyrus around the stick or rod which is of equal diameter and length so that the letters which are random match with the letters with the second rod and the message which is sent can be kn own. The soldiers make use of this method for the information about the strategic moves and military directives. Julius Caesar method: This is also one of the ancient methods of cryptography where Caesar developed a method where the letters of the word are shifted by some number which is set. He developed this method because of his non trustiness on his messengers. So he used to shift the letters by the number 3 such as the letter A is replaced by letter D. So the one who knows the shift by 3 rule can only decipher the message. STUDENT (Plain message) VWXGHQW (encrypted message) CONCEPT: The main concept of cryptography is the process of securing the information by changing the original form of the text or message to the form which cannot be read by the unauthorized user. The message which is sent originally by the sender is known as plaintext which can be read by everyone and the encryption technique is applied to this plain text which results in the formation of cipher text or encrypted text which cannot be read by an unauthorized user. An encryption algorithm is used to convert the plain text into cipher text and again this cipher text is retransformed into plain text by decryption algorithm. This means that cryptography is the science which is used for protecting the message or information by providing different ways and process in order to convert the message or information which cannot be read by anyone. The data or message is converted in such a way that the No access of data for an unauthorized person Information present in the data frames is hidden Data authentication is formed The altering of the data is avoided The message originator cannot disown the data So the information which is transmitted on information and communication systems can be protected or secured by the technology known as cryptography. This technology is applied in many fields such as finance, personal data, military etc.This technology provides a means of authentication verification of the data so that the real culprit can be caught who interrupts the confidentiality and integrity of the data. DIFFERENT TERMS IN CRYPTOGRAPHY: Cryptography: The science of protecting the message or data by using different techniques is known as cryptography. Cryptosystem: The process of encryption and decryption comes under cryptosystem. Cryptanalysis: The process of converting the plaintext from the ciphertext without use of a key. Cryptology: It is the combined study of cryptography and cryptanalysis. Encipher: The act of converting the data which is cannot be readable by an unauthorized user. Decipher: The act of converting the data into readable format. Plain text: This is the original message or the initial message which is sent by the sender to the recipient. This also known as clear text or original text. Encryption: This is the process of converting the plaintext or original text into the text in order to cover the message which cannot be understood by any unauthorized users. Ciphertext: The text which is sent for encryption results in the form of text known as cipher text or encrypted text which cannot be read by unauthorized users. Decryption: This is the opposite of encryption where the encrypted text or cipher text is retained to its original form by using this technique. The conversion of cipher text to plain text takes place in this process. Hash algorithm: This is the algorithm which is used in the encryption technique for the conversion of large string to the fixed length string. This increases the speed of the process. Key: Key is the specified value which is used for encrypting the plaintext to produce the ciphertext.The value of the key will be very high. It is the series of bits and instructions which governs encryption and decryption Cipher: This is the algorithm which is used for the translation of the plaintext to the ciphertext which is the intermediate form GOALS OF CRYPTOGRAPHY: The main objective of the cryptography is to secure the information which is sent from the sender to the receiver so that it cannot be accessed by any unauthorized user and in order to maintain the security of this information cryptography has need to take care of some characteristics which are as follows Confidentiality: The phenomenon of confidentiality plays an important role in cryptography. Confidentiality is the method of securing the information or message such that it can only be accessed only by an authorized user who is proposed to read it. The confidentiality of the information loses its importance when it can be accessed by an unauthorized user. So when a message is sent from A to B, only B should be able to understand the message. Authentication: The phenomenon of authentication also plays a major role in cryptography. The identity of the sender who is sending the message is very important for the receiver. So this is the process of sending the identity proof of the sender to the receiver such that the receiver can be able to know the person who is sending the message. The main concept here is the assurance. Integrity: The integrity of the message has very much importance in cryptography. The message which is sent by the sender should be the same when it is received by the receiver. The message should not be altered or changed during the transmission process by any unauthorized users. So this is the method of making sure that the message which is sent is not altered or tampered during the transit. The contents which are present at the sender should reach the receiver with the same contents without any change. Non-repudiation: This is the method to make sure that the message which is sent is nor disowned. The s ender after sending the message should not declare that it has not sent the message .Once the message is sent by the sender then he is the originator of the data. He has no authority of denying of sending the data. So these are the characteristics of cryptography where all these elements are maintained and implemented during the process of transmission of data from sender to the receiver. CRYPTOGRAPHIC or ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES: A key plays an importance role in the classification of the cryptographic techniques. The number of keys used decides the type of cryptographic techniques used. So the two important cryptographic techniques area s follows SINGLE OR SECRET KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY OR SYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION: The single key cryptography is one of the main cryptographic techniques where only a single key is used for encryption and decryption of the data or message. So only a single key is responsible for the process of encryption and decryption. This is also known as symmetric key or secret key or private key encryption. So the process of encrypting and decrypting the message or information or data with the help of a single key is known as single key cryptography. The same key which is used for encryption is also used for decryption. The important point of this type of cryptography is that the both transmitter and the receiver should accept on the same key. Symmetric cryptography or encryption between A and B: The process of single cryptography takes place between A and B by sending the message between them. The message which is to be sent by A should not be accessed by an unauthorized user and it should be able to read by only B. In order to make sure that only B has to read the message then a secret key is generated by A. So the secret key which is generated is used for the encryption of the message and this encrypted message is sent to B in the form of ciphertext.This process is known as encryption.Inorder to read the encrypted message by B there is a need of the secret key which is generated by A. So the secret key is transmitted by A to B by different means. The key can be sent to B directly in person by A but it depends on the distance between A and B which effects time. If the distance is more it takes more time and vice versa. The availability of B also plays an important role in sending the key. So as soon as the key is received by B then the decryption of the data takes place wit h the same key in order to retain its original form which is the plain text. So the secure transmission of data takes place between A and B. PROBLEMS IN SYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY: The main problem in symmetric cryptography is with the key which are used to encrypt and decrypt the data or message. The key which is used here is not more secure.Inorder to transfer the message in the symmetric cryptography the sender should send the key along with the message through internet in the form of e-mail or through IRC services. So this type of transmission of keys is more insecure so that the data can be altered or tampered. The key can be transmitted physically but the distance between the sender and the receiver plays an important role and which is insecure. The process of transferring the key verbally through a phone line results in the leakage of the conversation to others. The sharing of the keys is also one of the problems in this type of cryptography. The other problems in this type of cryptography are key distribution and key management. This type of cryptography lacks in providing data integrity, non-repudiation and data authentication. Digital signatures canno t be created by symmetric cryptography. PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY OR ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION: The public key cryptography is also one of the main cryptographic techniques which is used for the secure transmission of data. Based on the security issues which are limited in secret key cryptography the public key cryptography has been evolved. This concept was introduced by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman in 1975. The process where the encryption and decryption of the data or message takes place by two keys instead of a single key is the public key cryptography and this technique is known as asymmetric key encryption. As the name indicates asymmetric key encryption, one key is used for encrypting the data and the other key is used for decrypting the data. These two keys form a pair of keys and the combination of these two keys is known as key pair. The two keys which are used here are public key and secret key or private key. The public key can be liberally distributed to any one which is used for encryption and thus this is named as public key encryption. The other key which is the private key or secret key cannot be distributable to any one and is used for decryption. The secret key is private to any communicating part participating in the process. In this type of cryptography the message or data can be encrypted with only one key and decrypted with the other key where the key which is used for the encryption cannot be used for decryption. So the data or message which is encrypted by the public key should only be decrypted by the private key and vice versa that means the data which is encrypted by the private key should only be decrypted by the public key which results in asymmetric cryptography. Asymmetric cryptography or encryption between A and B: The asymmetric key encryption takes place between A and B by sending message or data between them. The message which is to be sent to b should not be accessed by any unauthorized user. So the decryption of the message should take place with the help of the private key by B. So B contains both the private key and the public key. The public key which is distributable is distributed to A and then A encrypts the message or data with the help of the public key which is sent by B. So the file which is encrypted by A is sent to B where the decryption of file takes place with the help of the private key. So the message or data cannot be accessed by any one because the private key is used for decryption which results in the secure transmission of data. SO the security of the data is more in the public key or asymmetric cryptography or encryption. The above process reveals that the only the public key is used for encryption and only the private key is used for the decryption of the data which reduces the unwanted access of data by an unauthorized users. The loss of data will be very low in this type of cryptography. The possibility of tampering or alteration of the data or message is very low in this type of encryption. The exchange of information or message is very secure in this process. As in the symmetric encryption the sharing of key is not necessary for the encryption or decryption because it uses different keys for different process. The public key is responsible for all the communications but the private key remains silent without any sharing. So each recipient has its key which is unique and this key is used to decrypt the data which is encrypted by its opposite part. PROBLEMS IN ASYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY: The major problem in this type of encryption is key lengths. The lengths of the keys which are used in public key encryption are very large of 1024 bits to 4094 bits. This results in the low speed of transmission of the data. The key lengths in symmetric cryptography are less from 40 bits to 256 bits which helps in the fast transmission of the data when compared to public key cryptography. So when compared to symmetric key cryptography the public key cryptography is most secure. The messages can be easily transmitted and can be secured in public key cryptography. The key distribution in the public key cryptography is the main asset for this type of encryption. The key management problem can be avoided in this encryption .the strong cryptography can be provided by the public key encryption which is the revolution in the technology. So public key cryptography has more benefits than private key encryption. CRYPTOGRAPHIC OR ENCRYPTION ALGORITHMS: The algorithm is the step to step procedure or the group of mathematical rules which are used for enciphering and deciphering the message or information or data. There are many algorithms which are used in the cryptography and they are known to everyone. So the different types of encryption algorithms are as follows SECRET KEY OR SYMMETRIC KEY ENCRYPTION ALGORITHMS: As the name indicates that in this type of encryption only a single key or a dedicated key is used for both encryption and decryption. The secret key algorithms which are used widely are as follows Data Encryption Standard (DES): Data Encryption algorithm is one of the secret key encryption algorithms which is the most widely used. The Data Encryption Standard specifies a FIPS approved cryptographic algorithms as required by FIPS140-1.The Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm has been developed by IBM in the year 1970s and the adaptation was made by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).This is also specified in the ANSI X3.92 and X3.106 standards and also in the Federal FIPS 46 and 81 standards. The exportation of this algorithm is strictly restricted by the US government such that it could be used by the unauthorized people or government. Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm provides basic building block for the data protection. The DES is a block cipher which is of 64-bit block size which converts the 64-bit input into the 64-bit output by applying the 56-bit key to each 64-bit data. There are 72 quadrillion or more keys which are used for encryption. So for each message or the information a suitable key is selected from these possible keys and then the process of encryption and decryption takes place with the same key which is the private key or secret key. But due to the innovation in the technology this type of algorithm has proved insecure which resulted in the introduction of Triple-DES (3DES) ALGORITHM where the name itself indicates that the encryption is done three times which is more secure and uses a different key for each encryption. Controversies around DES: The Data Encryption Standard (DES) has been bounded by different controversies such as the key length which s used is used in this type of algorithm has been reduced from 128 bits to 64 bits which resulted in the compromise on security and the other one is the exportation of the algorithm to many countries. DES APPLICATIONS: The Data Encryption Standard (DES) Algorithm has many applications apart from encryption and authentication of data. So the different applications are as follows Data Storage and Mail Systems: The data which is stored in the computers can be protected by the process of encryption and authentication. The passwords which are created by the users in the computers are encrypted by the systems and are stored in the computer memory. The user when enters the password again for signing then the encryption of this password also takes place and this is compared with the other encrypted password and the access to the computer takes place when they both match otherwise the access is denied. The encryption of the password is done by Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm with the key which is equal to the password and the plaintext which is equal to the users identity. The files which are present in the computer can also be encrypted by Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm for the storage. The computers have a key notarization system which are integrated into them and are used to secure the files from unauthorized access, modifications etc.This Key notarization also helps in providing digital signature capability by using DES.DES gives the users the ability of exercising a group of commands for the purpose of key management, data encryption and authentication functions. The facilities execute notarization which on encryption seals a key or a password. The sealing of key or password takes place with the transmitter and receiver identities. So the receiver must provide the correct identity of the transmitter in order to decrypt the message. This technique of notarization is applied in ANSI standardX9.17 in order to protect against key substitutions which may lead to the compromise of the sensitive data. The secure mail can also be provided by DES .The conjunction of the mail system and the key notarization system helps in providing the secure mail. The header which contains the information which is necessary to decrypt and authenticate the mail file is appended automatically to the file which is transmitted to the receiver. So the decryption and authentication of the file takes place by the receiver in a near transparent manner. `Electronic Funds Transfer (Wholesale and Retail): This is one of the main applications of the Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm. The DES plays an important role in protecting the wholesale and retail electronic funds transfer messages. Different standards such as ANSI X9.9 and ANSI X9.19 have been developed Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) messages. The efforts made by these communities have led to the formation of encryption standards (ANSI X9.23 Draft) and Key management (ANSI X9.17 ANSI X9.24 Draft) standards. The DES is applied in workstations, point of sale terminals, automated teller machines and host computers. The range of data which is protected by DES is of the range from 50$ to a multi-million-dollar transfer. The main criterion which helps the DES algorithm of its usage in the wide variety of EFT applications is the Flexibility. The standards which are developed for EFT application are being developed globally and so the process of encryption, authentication and k ey management have become global. The daily transfer of billions of dollars is done by the US government and the security of this transfer is taken by the Department of Treasury by initiating its policy on the authentication of EFT messages. The support of the Federal Reserve Bank is given to the Treasury in order to make the policy successful. The system which the treasury is considering uses hand-held tokens which contains DES key which are generated for the purpose of a particular individual. The authentication of the EFT message which contains the individuals identity is done by the key which is supplied by the token. The message which is authenticated is the electronic substitute for a signed paper document. Electronic Business Data Interchange: The very big companies have large part of the business transactions and these transactions should be automatic so that cost can be reduced and increases efficiency. So in order to achieve all these large companies are developing the process of automating business. The traditional method of business transactions which is paper based is replaced with the electronic means of transmission. The ANSI Accredited Standards Committee X12 is responsible for these communications by developing different formats. The transaction between the seller and buyer can be accessed by any unauthorized users. So there is a need for protecting the data from the modification and eavesdropping which is done by the process of cryptography or encryption technique. This technique is very effective in protecting the data from unwanted users. The data which is sent by the sender cannot be readable by anyone unless the receiver. Many DES standards have been developed for the pu rpose of the Electronic business data interchange. The standard ANSI X9.9 helps in protecting the data from the unnecessary modifications by the unauthorized user, the unauthorized disclosure can be prevented by the draft ANSI Standard X9.23.The techniques of ANSI Standard X9.17 used for the secure generation, distribution and the storage of DES keys. The above explained methods are implemented by General Motors and seven associated banks in order to protect their business transactions. ATTACKS ON DES: In addition to these different applications of DES it has some weaknesses which are as follows Brute Force Attack: The brute force attack is the simplest attack to decipher. The attack of brute force on the DES is due to the length of the key which is relatively small that is 56 bit and also computational power of the computers which is increasing daily. In the 19th century this type of attacks are not done by the hackers because the cost of the computers are relatively high and the hackers couldnt afford to buy it. But the innovation in the field of computing and technology made the hackers to easily buy the computers and try to hack. Now a days every computer is used for hacking. The powerful, Faster and cheaper techniques which are used by the hackers are Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and Application -Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC).The time taken to break the cipher is directly proportional to the key length in the brute force attack. In this type of attack the random generation of the keys takes place and these keys are applied on the ciphertext till the origin al key is generated. So the fake key decrypts the message in to its original form. So the main factor which is to be considered here is the key length. The longer the key length the higher is the security. In a n bit long key 2 to the power of n steps are required to break the cipher. So as long as the key length is going to increase then the secure data transmission takes place in the network communication. So in order to get the safe encryption the key lengthy should be long such as the 128 bits which results in the reliable means of encrypting the message. Differential Cryptanalysis Attack: This type of attack is found near the pairs of ciphertexts where the plaintext has some particular differences and these differences are analysed by this attack when the plaintext is propagating through several DES rounds when they are encrypted with the help of the same key. TRIPLE DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD (3DES): Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES) is also one of the encryption algorithms and it is the minor variation of Data Encryption Standard (DES).Triple-DES is adopted by ANSI as the X9.52 standard and also been proposed as a revision of FIPS 46, known as draft FIPS 46-3.This algorithm makes use of a 64-bit key which consists of 56 effective key bits and 8 parity bits. The block size for Triple-DES is 8 bytes and the encryption of the data is done in